Book Review: The Founding of the Kashmir State; A Biography of Maharajah Gulab Singh 1792-1858

The Founding of the Kashmir State is divided into nine chapters. To some Gulab Singh seemed an opportunist who took advantage of the confusion which followed after Ranjit Singh’s death. He was able to carve out a state for himself with the establishment of Jammu and Kashmir by the Treaty of 1846.

Gulab Singh was the son of Kishore Singh. Gulab Singh’s sons were Randhir Singh, Sohan Singh and Ranbir Singh. Gulab was under his grandfather’s training. One day he was not obedient to his grandfather and got scolded by him. Gulab was left hurt as he was sensitive boy of hardly seventeen years. In 1809 Gulab joined the army of Ranjit Singh at Daska, a few miles from Sailkot. Ranjit Singh in 1812 started his first expedition against Kashmir in alliance with Fateh Khan, Minister of Shah Mahmud of Kabul. Before that Ranjit Singh had received the title of Rajah in 1799 from Zaman Shah. It was Ranjit Singh who gave Gulab Singh the title of Rajah.

The third chapter is regarding Gulab Singh and the Sikh Anarchy. In 1839 Ranjit Singh died at the age of 59. He was succeeded by his son Kharrak Singh. Kharrak Singh was in the hands of his favorite Chet Singh. This created problems and alienated the other officers of the court. This created turmoil. After that Lahore government had made every effort to root out the Jammu family. Only Gulab Singh managed to escape from their thirst for blood.

In chapter five the conquest of Ladak, Baltistan and Western Tibet is covered. In 1834 Gulab Singh decided to attack Ladak. At first there was no opposition as the Ladakis were taken by surprise. 5000 Ladakis were collected in haste abd on 16 August 1834, an attempt was made to stop the Dogra advacnce at Sanku. The Ladakis were heavily defeated. Having finally conquered Ladak, Zorawar Singh turned to Baltistan. Muhammad Shah the eldest son of the ruler of Sakrdo sought Zorawar’s help to get his claims recognized. Zorawar organized a Ladaki army under their own generals and invaded Baltistan. The Balti army was defeated and Muhammad Shah was made the Sulatn. Zorawar left a Dogra garrison to support his authority.

Zorawar now wanted to conquer Central Tibetean Province for his master. He prepared an army of 5000 which included Balti and Ladaki recruits with a small Dogra force. On 10 December 1841 the balttle commenced. Zorawar was helped by a Tibetan warrior as a lance pierced his breast. With Zorawar’s death the Dogra army suffered great hardships. Despite that, Gulab Singh did not lose heart. A new army was raised and dispatched under Dewan Harri Chand and Wazir Ratanu. With the approach of the Dogra force the Tibetans fled and Dogra leaders occupied Leh.

Treaty of Lahore and Treaty of Amritsar are discussed in chapter six. In chapter seven the text of the Treaty of Amritsar is given. Maharajah Gulab Singh had to pay to the British Government the sum of seventy-five Lakhs of Rupees (Nanushahee). The rein of Gulab Singh is explained in the second last chapter. The hostility of the Sikh population and the strained relations with Afghanistan made it necessary for the British government to cultivate the friendship of Gulab Singh and to treat him as a specially valued ally. In 1850 Sir Henry and Lady Lawrence came to Kashmir. They met Gulab Sing at Sri Nagar several times. Lawrence from there went to Skardo and Ladak. The aim of this mission was to explore the possibilities of the Central Asian trade.

In 1841 Gaur Aman the eldest son of Mulk Iman, the ruler of Yasin conquered Gilgit and killed its ruler. Karim Khan, the brother of the dead Rajah called upon the Sikh Governor of Kashmir for help. The Sikhs sent Nathu Shah of Gujranwalla with a strong force to help Karim Khan. In 1842 Astore was occupied by Nathu Shah and Gaur Aman was defeated. Nathu Shah was sent back again and successfully pacified the border, taking in marriage the daughters of Gaur Aman and the Mirs of Hunza and Nagar. Karim Khan who asked for Sikh aid received it mostly and Gilgit got permanently occupied by the Sikhs. In 1852 Chilas was conquered by the Sikhs. Chilasis surrendered and their leaders were brought to Srinagar where they accepted the Maharajah’s authority and left their sons as hostages.

Gulab Singh died at the age of sixty-six in August 1858.The author believes that Gulab Singh was one of the most remarkable man that India had produced. The extension of the Sikh state into Ladak, Skardo and Tibet are to Gulab Singh’s credit.

A very pragmatic decision maker who knows when to fight and when to go for peace. Gulab Singh remained an orthodox Hindu at the Sikh Court. He built numerous temples in Jammu, undertook pilgrimages and banned the killing of cows. The author believes that ‘Jammu and Kashmir state’ is his monument.

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Book Review: Etherton at Kashgar Rhetoric and Reality in the History of the Great Game by Daniel C. Waugh

I believe this research article is a very important one, as it brings out the complexities regarding the politics in East Asia in the late ninetieth and early twentieth century.

Etherton’s career is highlighted in the first chapter. Etherton was a British officer, traveler and writer. He fought for the British in Africa in 1901 and then joined Garhwal Rifles, a largely native regiment in northern India. Etherton’s two famous books are Across the Roof of the World and In the Heart of Asia. George Macartney was Etherton’s predecessor who considered him to be a scholarly and energetic man. The challenges faced by the British Consul in Kashgar are discussed. George Macartney had come to Kashgar in 1890 to represent British interest in the face of the already established Russian presence. His government saw fit to appoint him officially as Consul only in 1908.

Etherton’s responsibilities were political in nature but that did not undermine the question of trade and commercial interests. In fact, trade and commercial matters were also important, even in the period from 1918 to 1922. The Consul cared for the interests of British subjects in its region of China, that is the Indian merchants who in many cases had long been resident there. They controlled the trade across the passes from Kashmir, were actively involved in the trade across the passes from Kashmir, were actively in the trade with Russia, and played an important role in the financial life of oasis towns in Western Xinjiang.

The origins of the Kashgar Mission are discussed in the third chapter. This Mission included three officers which include Frederick Bailey, L. Stewart Balcker and Percy Ethorton. The aim of this mission was to find out exactly what was going on in Soviet Tashkent and to try to cultivate good relations with the new Soviet regime there in order that it prevent Central Asian cotton from being shipped to the Germans. The particular role of Captain Samad Shah, a cousin of the Aga Khan, in providing information is also highlighted in this particular chapter.

The consulate’s intelligence and communication networks are briefly explained in the fourth chapter. Etherton was able to cultivate Kyrgz tribal leaders in the Pamirs for information. On the other hand, informants for Sarikol plateau and Wakhan included Ismailis. Etherton used to send his own agents on specific missions, where they could cross the border disguised as merchants.

In 1918 the telegraph line of the British was extended from Gilgit to Misgar. Writing about the British government policies toward the Bolsheviks the writer considers Etherton’s purpose of network to be two fold. The first was to gather intelligence and second was to take steps which might counter political threats. In March 1921 to Anglo- Soviet trade agreement was signed. This caught Etherton, the far flung representative by surprise. Etherton had even used Fatwa from the Sheikh-ul Islam denouncing Bolshevism. In his report Etherton had included subjects of lasting interest to him which included Pan-Islamic movements and the role of the Japanese in East Asia.

In the second half of this research article the author is critical of Eherton. He questions Etherton’s special budgetary requests for secret service work. Skrine came after Eherton and a few months after that bluntly criticized Etherton in 1923. Etherton took leave from the post in 1922 and had the intention of returning, but his superiors did not wish that.

When Skrine arrived in Kashgar he discovered that the financial accounts in the Consulate were in total chaos. Skrine also accused Etherton of indulging in sexual dalliance with local prostitutes in official residence of Kashgar. Skrine said that for three and a half years Etherton had lovely time at the expense of the poor old impoverished British Empire. It is believed that Etherton was manipulating exchange rates in China, falsifying records, depositing funds in his own bank account in India, and held no accounting for his secret service operations in 1921-22.

The author believes that Etherton published his book to justify his actions and ensure his place in history. Furthermore, the author believes that activities of all the travelers in Central Asia need close scrutiny in order to get a better understanding of the events in nineteenth and early twentieth century.

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