Book Review: Pakistan: The Social Sciences' Perspective (Edited by Akbar S. Ahmed)

Overall this book highlights the complexity and diversity in Pakistani society. It covers the saints of Sind, Afghan refugees in Peshawar, complex social networks of Baltistan, groups in Faisalabad, and tribalism in Faisalabad. This anthology of essays present various anthropological and historical perspectives. Overall there are thirteen contributors to this book. Essays on Afridi of the Khyber Agency, Hazarawal district ethnicity, Transformation in Dir and Swat, Identity of Afghan refugees, Charismatic Kingship in Baltistan, Shrines in Punjab, the politics of Sufism, Shrine of Golra Sharif, The Case of Faisalabad (1947-75), Shrine in Sind, Shame and Purdah in Balochistan, the social structure of the Brahui and the Baloch, and Pirs among the Baloch living in Pakistan. 

David M. Hart writes about Tarbur, Mahr and Nanawati among the Afridi pakhtoons. Afridi jirga takes place in masjids (p. 17). Among the Afridis the Adamkhel's owned and operated gun factories. They did not arise in response to any particular urge  to combat the British as Mujahideen. They did it for economic reasons. Darra factories also supplied arms to the British Indian Army during the period of arm shortage (p. 24). In the second chapter, Akbar S. Ahmed writes about the different politicians from Hazara, the stereotypes in Hazara, conflict and bloodshed in Hazara forests, Pakistan Peoples Party, timber mafia, and the politics of ethnicity in Hazara- related to its forest wealth (p.42).

Writing on Dir and Swat, in the third chapter Charles Lindholm states that in attempting to conquer Chitral, Dir itself developed centralization (p.52). In 1969 Dir had rebelled against Pakistan and this happed again in 1976 (p. 58-59). David Busy Edwards writes about the Afghan refugees in Pakistan. Edwards mentions primordial affinities of ethnicity (p.63), usury among Ghilzais, Tarburwali (cousin enmity), character slurs among members of different tribes (p. 79), and nomads versus mullahs in Parachinar in 1983.

Richard M. Emerson writes in detail Baltistan. Emerson writes that 'balti' means the basement chambers where animals are put and the people who put them there (p. 103). Different parts of Baltistan were settled by migrants of Dard, Turkistani, Kashmiri, and Ladakhi people, they were almost certainly assimilated into an established Tibetan culture now called Balti (p.102). The author also writes that Mar-pa were the butter people (ladakhis) and Brok-pa (pasture people). Emerson says that the ruling family of Shigar must be connected with the Dards of Hunza-Nagar (p.111) as they have some similar names in the genealogy. Emerson has also written about the Turkic Buddhist rulers of Kundus, Khaplu kingdom's origination from a person belonging to Turkistan (p. 113). The author also speculates that the landless dependents in Baltistan might have descended from slaves (p. 115). From Khaplu 400 soldiers aided the British-Dogra conquest of Hunza-Nagar (p. 143). Before 1846 local titles were used by the ruling elite. It was replaced by 'Raja' after the British-Dogra suzerainty. Emerson adds that Kha-Cho were a warrior class (p.117). He further writes about the British land settlement of 1903 in Khaplu, Trampa, 'milk mother' relations among Baltis, origin of Nurbakhshis in Baltistan, judicial process and role of Trampas (p. 120), land distribution to the military nobility, Weber on domination and exchange, Chilasis seeking protection of Skardo, Chilasi raiders taking away women and animals, logic of collective action, Maqpoon (the military elite) and the sword dance.

David Gilmartin's essay is about the conflict over Sajjada Nashin, invitation to the Pirs for attending the Delhi Durbar of 1911 (p.155). The British wanted to educate the Sajjad Nashin themselves. Gilmartin says that Khakwanis are pathans from Multan. Katherine Wing writes about the politics of Sufism. He writes about the moral force that began to shape the political order and the conversion of Jats and Rajputs. The Muslim rulers tried to bring the Sajjada-nashis under their control by granting them land (p.172). Pir Pagaro was executed in 1943, because the British saw him as a threat (p. 172). Wing further writes about the spiritual aristocracy, public display of religion by high government officials during Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's government, and Sufi Barkat Ali of Lyallpur.

Hafeezur Rehman Chaudhry writes about the Golra shrine. He mentions that Golra Sharif Pir came from Ambala. Later one of the descendants Pir Meher Ali wrote against Qadiyani movement. Chaudhry also writes about the hierarchies at the shrine, the design of the building, the functions of various employees, the crops produced on the shrine land and the Mujaver of Golra shrine (p. 201). The author believes that Qawali was for attracting converts (p. 202). Mohammad Waseem writes a chapter on Faisalabad. In the chapter he is of the view that1/3 of Faisalabad's population migrated to India in 1947. It became an urban district. Waseem further writes about the presence of sheikhs and khojas in Faisalabad, patronage and extraction of bribes, dominance of entrepreneurial class in Faisalabad, Sehgals joining politics, Nizame Islam party in Faisalabad, pattern of interaction between local forces, non-local workers, People's Academy in Faisalabad and the whole textile sector which remained untouched during ZA Bhutto's nationalization.

Richard Kurin writes an essay on the Abdullah Shah Ghazi Shrine in Sindh. Carrol McC. Pastner writes on Balochistan. He states that in Panjgur there exists three main groups which include Hakim, Baloch and Hizmathar. Hizmathar are negroid in origin (p. 248). In the nineteenth century Makran was incorporated into the Kalat state (p. 252). Emancipation of slaves had taken place in 1920s. 

Yuri Gankovsky writes that Zikris are Shiah and they practice Taqqiya (p. 261). Yuri further writes that the first university in Balochsitan was opened in 1970 (p. 269). In Balochistan twenty percent of the uleemas are from the Baloch districts. The author states that in 1979 181 out of the 830 top officials in the province were Baluchis (p. 271). Gankovsky also says that the Barahvi population also lives in Afghanistan and Iran (p. 271). Barahvi's did not have a script and were surrounded on all sides by the Baloch. Stephen L. Pastner writes that the founder of Zikri religion was Sayid Mahmud of Jaipur who in his Indian homeland proclaimed himself as the Mahdi. Nasir Khan of Kalat did a crack down on Zikris. The author claims that he was a fanatic Sunni Muslim (p. 278). This collection of essays is a brilliant addition to the literature on history, politics and anthropology.

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Book Review: The Old World: Early Man To the Development of Agriculture (Under the editorial supervision of Robert Stigler)

Reading this book, I learnt that how from the flowers, which were identified by the pollens found in the grave, it was possible to determine the burial month of an individual (p. 61).

In southwestern France in Upper Paleolithic times we have the appearance of two cultures, the Aurignacian and the Perigordian, which run almost side by side in the same region (p. 65). Solecki says that the Aurignacian is quite widespread there, through Turkey and the Zagros Mountains as far as Afghanistan (p. 65). Solecki further states that most probably 30, 000 years ago people entered Australia by boat (p. 68).

Perkins. Jr and Daly state that food production most probably began in the Near East in the Highland Zone (p. 72). The authors further state that the theory that the retreat of glaciers was assumed to have shifted the rain belts, causing increasing desiccation- seems to have numerous flaws( p. 74). As per these authors a domestic animal is one 'which breeds in captivity and is of significant economic importance' (p. 80).

Stigler writes that in the Near East the early stages of food production did indeed take place in such mostly upland country and only afterwards did Neolithic settlement  begin to fill  the alluvial valleys and lowland plains (p. 100). Stigler further writes that in Catal Huyuk the entrances were through the roofs which presented a blank façade to the outside world (p. 104). The author further writes that some old world archeologists sometimes refer the "Old Testament effect", which means 'attributing the appearance of any cultural innovation to an immigration of peoples from the outside' (p. 110).Ubaid in Southern Mesopotamia  has origins which are often attributed to a new people coming into the area from south western Iran (p. 114).

Writing on Egypt and India Stigler writes that 'the later dynastic written sources indicate that by Late Pre-dynastic times two parallels lineages of "kings" ruled Upper and Lower Egypt respectively' (p. 140). The author states that in India and Pakistan the links between Mesolithic and the Neolithic are still missing from the archeological record (p. 145). Stigler is of the view that the 'earliest date farming communities known to be of direct relevance to the subcontinent proper are located in Baluchistan' (p. 146). In addition to that the author writes that the site of Kile Gul Mohammad in the Quetta Valley of north-eastern Baluchistan is a cornerstone of the Baluchistan Neolithic, providing the earliest carbon-14 dates for the period in all of India-Pakistan' (p. 146). In geographical extent this was the largest of the four "primal" civilizations of the Old World- Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus, and China- stretching some thousand miles along the great alluvial river valley (p. 150).

This book covers plant domestication, sexual division of labor, deer-slayers in Germany and Poland, transition from hunter to townsman, hunting peoples, agrarian peoples, principal food animals (p. 75), definition of "civilization"(p. 116), historian Karl Wittfogel on irrigation (p. 117), Tasian burial practices and Walter Fairservis' views on first settlements in Baluchistan (p. 148).

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Book Review: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan by Begum Naz

Syed Ahmad Khan's (SAK) grandfather had migrated from Herat. Syed was born in October 1817 to Mir Muttaqi. He was sent to a maktab. From his father he learnt archery and swimming. Khan's mother told him: 'Life is full of vicissitudes you must only form such habits as you can always live with' (p. 9).

Khan went to England where he visited Cambridge and studied the education system in the university.  Syed was an advocate of advanced scientific education. He was very practical and realistic. The author of this book states that Khan 'was not a preacher by vocation but by compulsion of circumstances, hence it would be safer not to treat this aspect of his personality further' (p. 48). Naz furthers stresses that Khan's greatest work was to instill lost confidence in the hearts of the Muslims and to open before them fresh alternative avenues and pathways which alone could relieve them from their state of utter hopelessness and despair (p. 56).

Khan was elected the honorary fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of London in 1864 (p. 10). The British took formal permission from Mughal Emperor to administer Bengal and Bihar during the time of Shah Alam (p. 11). There is an incident of the murder of a person named Nana by the English officer Saunders. This officer chopped Nana's nose, ears, fingers and toes (p. 14).

The role of missionaries, British plunder during the 1857 revolt, realism of SSAK and his publications are also explained in the book.

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Book Review: Lahore: A Sentimental Journey by Pran Nevile

First published in 1933, Lahore: A Sentimental Journey is a tribute by Pran Nevile to his city of birth of Lahore. This interesting book covers his early childhood in Lahore, his time at Government College Lahore, festivals, cinema, time with his friends and the glamour in the city of Lahore. The author also writes about other themes including pathshala (teaching houses), fruits, film censor boards, clothing, fashion, fraudsters of Lahore, doctors, Lahoria's love for ghee, food, nepotism in Government College Lahore, annual jalsa of Arya Samaj and Rang Mahal School.

Pran Nevile writes that the Sikh rulers converted Badshahi mosque into a workshop (xviii). Nevile remembers Nehru passing through Anarkali. He says that Lahorias aped the Sahibs (p. 5). He remembers the pathans as moneylenders (p. 11). During the Besakhi festival in Lahore thousands of people took bath in the Ravi river (p. 23). Nevile also writes that the kite flying went from China to Europe, through India (p. 28). Tea was yet to gain a foothold and it was promoted in Lahore in the 1930s (p. 134). An old Punjabi saying is: 'Eat what appeals to you and wear what appeals to the people.'

The author himself grew up in Sutar Mandi in todays old Lahore. Some of the interesting observations of the author are that early marriage was the established custom in Punjab until the 1920s (p. 64). During the 1930s the author noticed that ghagris gave way to Shalwar suits and saris (p. 81). Even during the summer months the author and his friends would wear cotton or silk suits (p. 154). Some doctors would travel to Lahore from Amritsar twice a week to attend patients (p. 120).

Other interesting themes covered in the book include gatka instructor at Government College, swimming, rowing, King's Commissioned Officer, hierarchy within the bureaucracy, temporary government officials, refence culture, salaries of VCOs and KCOs, new rich class of contractors,  emergency wallahs as brown sahibs, a large majority of India army being Punjabi and the opening of the Wagah border in the 1950s for a  cricket match.

I find this account very interesting and reader friendly!

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Book Review: Beyond the Gorges of the Indus: Archaeology before Excavation by Karl Jettmar

Karl Jettmar retired from the University of Heidelberg in 1986. He was an expert in the field of Central Asian Anthropology, archaeology, and art history. This book not only bring out the ancient history of the Northern Areas of Pakistan, but it also an appeal for the conduct of archaeological excavations. Between 1954 and 1989, various expeditions to the Trans-Himalayan zone allowed Jettmar to acquire unique and intimate knowledge regarding the area. During one of the journeys Rhabar Hassan was the guide and interpreter (p. 102).

Karl Jettmar states that the women in Darel were confined to their houses, but in Tangir they participated  working in the fields (p. 52). The author also mentions about the presence of an Assistant Political Agent residing in Tangir/Darel (p. 53). In these valleys a horse and a gun distinguished a wealthy and an underprivileged person. In Darel during weddings some dances were shared by men and women (p. 62). Jettmar writes that a British force had succeeded in conquering Chilas and defended it against the uprising Kohistanis. He stresses that the people of Astore were eager to instigate the British into such an intervention, because this finally stopped the raids by the Chilasis (p. 47).

Gilgit Valley was conquered three times by the rulers of Baltistan (p. 122). Under Dadi Juvari three notables from Darel built long canals in Gilgit (p. 161). The author states that in 1841 when a landslide from the Nanga Parbat had dammed the river and created a lake which extended back over 55 km and when the dam broke the water level at Attock caused a rise of 80 feet (p. 84).

Further in the book there is mention of the discovery of Gilgit Manuscripts. Gilgit Manuscripts represent the Buddhist and pre-Tibetan period of Baltistan up to the middle of the 8th century A.D (P. 186). Other themes under discussion include the illicit digging at Dasht-i-Taus, Ali Ahmad Jan (SSP Gilgit Police) order of transporting part of a boulder in his private house, stupa carvings near Chaprote, Turk tribes, gold washing, Tarkhane dynasty in Gilgit,  remains of a castle in Naupur, Shastri's visit to Gilgit and migrations in Baltistan (p. 183).

Jettmar makes interesting revelations when he writes similar rituals of brining sexual fulfillment and children to those women who had problems in Dardistan. Jettmar admits that he got more concise descriptions from Bubur in Punyal (p. 198). In the olden days in the Haramosh valley, in the pul-festival similar rights and duties were given to the character as given to the Budalak in Kalash. 

Jettmar mentions that Fussman considered the Sakas as the Iranian nomads of Central Asia (p. 97). Jettmar says that the Shin people were the last wave of immigrants (p. 107). The author states that 560 of all the Middle Iranian inscriptions were found at one site alone at Shatial Bridge (p. 111).

In this work the reader gets an interesting perspective into the social conditions of Baltistan, Tangir and Darel. The ancient trading networks, dynasties, rock arts and inscriptions are also discussed in detail. I started reading this book in 2020 and discontinued after reading less than a hundred pages. Today on the 10th of December 2023 I finish reading this book. I thoroughly enjoyed reading this book.

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Book Review: An Era of Darkness: The British Empire in India by Sashi Tharoor

An Era of Darkness is about the atrocities against women, ship building in India, role of Scots in India, three big darbars in India, Indian Civil Service, racism. exploitation, Indian parliament and justice in India. It also covers the Criminal Tribes legislation of 1911, colonialism, caste, British, Shi-Sunni divide in Lucknow, Nehru and Edwina, transporting Indian convicts from India, studying English literature in India, English language and its legacy, cricket and coloniality,7000 opium shops in India and the Kohinoor Diamond.

Shashi Tharoor presents interesting facts and arguments in this book. I mention some of them in this review. The author says that the Pitt family produced two Prime Minsters (p. 16). In the late 1920s, 7500 Englishmen were receiving 20 million pounds in pension from India annually(p. 24). Tharoor also agues that 'ironically, Lord Lytton's only qualification for the job of viceroy was that, as Robert Bulwer-Lytton, he was Queen Victoria's favorite poet (p. 182). Allan Octavian Hume was a Scotsman who founded the Indian National Congress (p. 81).

The atrocity and brutality of the British has clearly been exposed by Tharoor. 3289 Indian soldiers went missing in World War I, when 700,000 Indian soldiers fought against the Ottoman Empire (p. 87-88). Jamsetji Tata built Taj Mahal Hotel because he was expelled from Watson's Hotel in Bombay (p. 110). During the Orissa Famine of 1866 while a million and a half million people starved to death, the British exported 200 million pounds of rice to Britain (p. 179). Tharoor believes that Sir Syed Ahmed Khan's son was a judge, who died at 53, because he was not treated well by the British (p.72). 

The 'unfree migrants' of India were carried on British ships. which was an estimated 5300, 000 people (p. 193). Sixteen sons of Bahadur Shah Zafar were tried and hanged by the British (p. 196). Shashi Tharoor argues that the British rule in India was despotic because of the famine, forced migration and brutality (p. 204). Timber was exported to Britain for the construction of houses (p. 240). In 1886, only 86 Indians out of 1015 Engineers in PWD (p. 212). The arrival of the first electricity supplies started in India in the 1890s (p. 255). 

Tharoor says that 'Indians themselves did not drink the tea they produced. It was only during the Great Depression of the 1930s- when demand in Britain dropped and British traders had to unload their stocks- that they thought of selling their produce to the Indians the had ignored for a century' (p. 240). 

This book is a must read for the people of India and Pakistan as the author raises many interesting questions. Anyone interested in reading about the colonial rule of the brutal British rule in India, should definitely read this book.

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Book Review: The Little Book of Big History: The Story of Life, the Universe and Everything by Ian Crofton and Jeremy Black

This little book by Crofton and Black gives us a better understanding of the story of humanity and how modern humans fit into the universe. It starts with the Big Bang Theory. Further it discusses how stars and planets are formed and how our planet earth sustains life. Stories from a range of disciplines (which include cosmology, biology, archaeology and anthropology) are covered in this book. It is divided into six parts. One, setting the scene, two animal planet, three humans start to dominate, four civilization, five the rise of the west and six the modern world.

I mention some of the interesting points I found out in this book. Modern humans emerged 200, 000 years ago (p. 33). Males dominated hunts of Chimps (p. 47). On page 54 there is an interesting story of an African grey parrot. About 7500 years ago a mutation arose in cattle herders living in Central and South-Eastern Europe which stopped lactose intolerance in adults. Drinking milk became a widespread new cultural practice that conferred a competitive advantage. The lactose-tolerant gene spread successfully and is now found in many cultures of the world (p. 56). The authors state that languages may have emerged independently in a number of different places (p. 69).

With the coming of agriculture people started living in permanent settlements (p. 77). Wild horses were relatively small, but with selective breeding things changed (p. 84). Through the Silk roads the Chinese paper, printing, gunpowder and magnetic compass reached the West (p. 102). Wheat was used as a currency by the ancient Egyptians. The authors write that writing rose in early urban societies which were more stratified than in pre-urban times. They argue that the ruling elite needed it as a means to keep control over masses of commodities and numerous subjects (p. 116). 

Ancestors of Anglo-Saxons migrated from Scandinavia and Northern Germany(p. 125). The book discusses Sumerians, Babylonians and Egyptians. In Britain, not until the Crown Act of 2013 could a Roman Catholic take the throne (p. 154). Words such as Algebra and Alcohol are derived from Arabic (p. 156). Because of small pox and measles almost 90 percent of the native population of America died (p. 160). The last blasphemy case in Britain was in 1697.

In the last chapter, the authors mention that human species have existed for only a tiny fraction of the life of our solar system. They are of the view that there comes a point where humans have no choice but to accept that we humans will never know the full story of the universe in which we live (p. 255). The other themes discusses in the book include technology, printing, economic debates, expansion and imperialism. There is also mention of some books by the authors. I look forward to read them. 

 

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Book Review: The Life of Tipu Sultan by Kate Brittlebank

Tipu Sultan was born on the 20th of November 1750. From the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh to Powis Castle in Wales to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, today's tourist can see displays of Tipu memorabilia from the material to the mundane (p. 4).

Tipu's father was Haider Ali, in whose time Mysore was in a strong position (p. 10). Haider Ali began his rise through the ranks of the Mysore army of the Wodeyars. Mysore allied itself with British forces during the succession dispute for the Nawabship of the Carnatic. Later, Mysore switched sides to the French, as a result of broken British promises (p. 15). 

It is probable that Tipu's education included the subjects of the Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, hadiths, languages, philosophy, science and history. Tipu's  courage had been evident from an early age, when as a young boy he began to accompany his father on military campaigns.

Tipu's kingdom included Hindus and Jains. His primary goal was to secure and preserve the territory he had inherited from his father. Tipu devoted a large part of his energy to building on Haider's legacy. Haider and Tipu regarded the French as their ally and French mercenaries were an important component of the Mysore army (p. 32). Mysore already had both natural and manufacturing resources, providing Tipu with a substantial foundation for his economic expansion and commercial developments (p. 33). 

Tipu wrote his dreams. These dreams were thirty-seven in total. Tipu's use of tiger imagery was to convey his awesome power and demonstrate his close connection with the divine. Tipu drew an imagery that resonated with all communities (p. 52).

Kate, the author of this book states that Tipu did not discriminate against any specific religious groups on the basis of their faith. Tipu's own Chief Minister (diwan) was a Hindu. The British victors portrayed Tipu as a religious bigot and tyrant- which he was not, says the author. Writing to potential allies in the mid 1790s, Tipu had made it clear that his aims were twofold: to expel the British from India and to regain the districts he had ceded in 1792. Tipu was not the last Indian to resist the East India Company and its forces; a number of Maratha chiefs continued to fight, for instance, and the Sikhs hung on into the 1840s- so in that sense he was not unique ( p. 73). 

Anyone interested in studying the life of Tipu Sultan should definitely read this book.

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Book Review: A Princely Affair: The Accession and Integration of the Princely States of Pakistan, 1947-1955 by Yaqoob Khan Bangash

Bangash's book covers a very important but often neglected phase of Pakistan's history. The complicated process of integration, the postcolonial transition and the ways in which it affected the nature of the state is also covered.

There are certain details which are new to me, so I mention them in the review. General Muhammad Ayub Khan married his daughter to the son of Wali-e-Swat. Kalat and Bahawalpur states gave money to Chief's (later Aitchison) College of Lahore (p. 23). In 1897, Muhammad Sharif Khan of Dir was granted the title of Nawab by the British (p. 34). Quoting Biddulph, Bangash says that the rulers of Hunza and Nagar were locally called Soori (p. 40). Although today, locally there is no evidence for this claim.

Even before the partition India, Mountbatten was already acting pro-Congress (p. 54). Bangash quotes Jinnah who said 'Neither the British government nor the British Parliament nor any other power or body can compel them to do anything contrary to their free will and accord' (p. 58). Bangash says that Jinnah had personally taken on the responsibility of the princely states but barely had time to respond to the states which were interested in joining Pakistan (p. 61). Jinnah was preoccupied with 'more important matters' (p. 61). The Mehtar of Chitral died in a plane crash in 1954.

Sir Shah Nawaz was Dewan of the Junagadh state. Junagadh had already acceded to Pakistan. Menon wanted the Nawab to give full authority to the Dewan to decide the future of the state, which he did by calling upon the government of India to take over the administration of the state (p. 69).

The politics of the Khairpur state, Bahawalpur state, Kalat state and many other states are discussed in great detail. Sir Richard Crofton was the Prime Minister of Bahawalpur since 1942, Gurmani became the Prime Minister of Bahawalpur in April 1947. For some time the Prime Minister of Kalat was Edward Wakefield. Nawabzada Muhammad Aslam Khan was the Prime Minister of Kalat and a relative of the Nawab of Amb. He was a member of the Pakistan Civil Service.

The government of Pakistan had officially sanctioned that no popular representatives of the princely states were to take part in the all-important constitution-making process in Pakistan (p. 139).In 1950, there was not a single princely state in India where people did not have full democratic rights (p. 190). In Pakistan, because the government had no clear policy on accession, and Jinnah was too preoccupied with other state matters (and after February 1948 too annoyed to deal with Kalat), policy formulation became the responsibility of the bureaucrats (p. 222).

While reading the book I was wondering when would such perspectives be taught in schools and colleges? History is not something fixed. In fact, history writing should give rise to new questions and debates.

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Book Review: Nazi War Trials by Andrew Walker

 

Andrew Walker provides a chronological account of the proceedings of the trials of the main Nazi figures. The trial was conducted in four languages and involved more than four-hundred sessions of open court. The involved Nazi figures were charged with ‘crimes against humanity’ and put on trial.

There were no precedents in international law for the trial of war criminals. The Nazis were on the losing side and were on trial. The Charter of the International Military Tribunal was signed after six weeks of legal wrangling (p. 18). Article 6 set the Tribunal’s power to try those charged with committing any of four crimes: Crimes against Peace, War Crimes, Crimes against Humanity and Engaging in a Common Plan or Conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of these.

Nuremberg was the site of the trial. The first formal session of the Tribunal took place in Berlin on 18 October 1945. French and Russians wanted the proceedings to be delayed. The American and the British camps were determined that the trial should start on time.

Jackson set out the case of the United States. For him Communists, trade unionists, figureheads in the Church and the German Jews were the first victims of Nazi concentration camps. According to him, this provided the necessary prelude to the aggression aimed at the rest of Europe. Thomas Dodd, a former member of the FBI made a presentation on the Nazi forced labor program. About 4.75 million foreign workers were forced to work in support of the German economy.

In the French case, before the outbreak of the war the French average daily consumption was 3000 calories per day. By the end of the war it had fallen to 900.  The Dutch daily consumption fell to 400 calories a day. Roman Rudenko made the opening speech for the Soviet presentation. Thousands of people were killed. On the estate of Leo Tolstoy, his books were used as firewood. When it was pointed out to the officer in charge that there were plenty of other materials to hand, he replied that he preferred the light of Russian literature (p. 67).

Details are provided the trials of Goring, Hess, Von Ribbentrop,Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank and Frick, Streicher and many others.  Suicide of Joseph Goebbels had deprived the court of the chance to try the leading propagandist in the Third Reich (p. 119). Goring, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Saukel, Jodl, Von Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kalten-brunner, Rosenberg, Seyss-Inqurat and the absent Bormann were sentenced to death by hanging (p. 145). Goring committed suicide after having a cyanide capsule in his mouth (p. 146).

The author of the book says that the Nuremberg Trial was a test of the ability of victorious nations to deal justly with the vanquished. Walker further adds that it proved a necessary and admirable conclusion to six years of brutal and terrible warfare (p. 152). This book shows a summary of what happened at Nuremberg between 20 November 1945, when the trial began, and 16 October 1946, when sentence was carried out on those men convicted by the tribunal (p. 12).

 

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Book Review: The Ismaili Imams: A Biographical History by Farhad Daftary

 

This is the latest book of Daftary in which he tries to present a concise biographical history of all the Nizari Ismaili Imams. Some of them include those living in the formative period of Islam, through to the hidden Imams of the first ‘period of concealment’ when their public identities remained guarded, to the Imam-caliphs of the illustrious Fatimid dynasty, and those of the Alamut period, up to the Aga Khans of the modern times.

Some Imams have very little information while others have relatively detailed accounts. For me some of the information was new. For instance, the prophet’s son Hasan was removed from the list of Imams acknowledged by Nizari Ismailis. According to the author Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni persecuted Ismailis.  Creation of the Druze religion during Al-Hakim’s rein is also covered in the book (p. 95). Imam al-Mustansir’s mother was a Sudani who acted as a regent when he was young.

Daftary also provides images and description of various coins found during the time of different Imams. Some of them are in the possession of Ismaili Special Collections Unit. Imam Nizar was killed by his brother. Daftary writes about how Hasan Bin Sabah found the independent Nizari Ismaili da’wa. Throughout the book the divisions and splits within the Ismailis are also highlighted. During Imam Nur al-Din Muhammad’s rein that the Nizari Ismailis of Syria came in contact with the Crusaders who made them famous as Assassins in Europe.

During a later time, the Mongols destroyed the Ismaili strongholds. The castle of Alamut fell into the Mongol hands in December 1256. A year later, Rukn al-Din Khurshah, the Ismaili Imam and the last lord of Alamut who had ruled for exactly one year, was murdered in Mongolia, where he had been taken to see the great Khan (p. 10). Rukh al-Din Khurshah’s young son Shams al-Din Muhammad who had succeeded to the Imamate in 1257 was taken to Adharbayjan in northwestern Persia, where he and his immediate successors to the Imamate lived secretly (p. 11). Imam Mirza Murad fled to the vicinity of Qandahar in Afghanistan after escaping from prison assisted by a high Safawid Official who was a secret convert to Ismailism (p. 173).

The part nine of the book is titled ‘The Imams in the Modern Age’. The last four Aga Khans are covered in this part. Daftary covers the close association between Aga Khan I and the British after Aga Khan went to Afghanistan. The development programs of Aga Khan III and Aga Khan IV are also covered in the book.

This book provides a concise series of concise narratives recounting the lives, legacies and actions of all the forty-nine Ismaili Imams of the Ismaili community.

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Book Review: Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer by Patrick French

 

Francis Younghusband was one of the imperialists and adventures who spent a lot of time in united India. In 1903 he invaded Tibet through a brutal full-scale military invasion. Later in life he became a mystic thinker. Younghusband played a very important role in the ‘Great Game’, an intense political struggle between British India and Tsarist Russia. Despite being a classic Edwardian, in the post-World War era he led the way in religious, philosophical and sexual free-thinking. In this book Patrick French unearths Francis Younghusband’s own letters, papers and original documents. French weaves fine travel writing into historical biography, celebrating the imperial adventure.

I have covered some of the interesting points in this book. Younghusband was born in Murree, which is now part of Pakistan. His father was a Major-General in the Royal Artillery. When Younghusband was a Second Lieutenant, he had five servants in India. Robert Shaw was a relative of Francis Younghusband. Francis presented himself as a flawless hero (p. 74). When Grombchevesky and Younghusband met in late nineteenth century, they communicated in French. Younghusband wanted to tame the ruler of Hunza by invading Hunza, which he did in 1891. The Russians had already gained permission to station a council at Kashgar in 1882.

Younghusband moved to Giligt for his exams. He also mentions about the bisexuality of the Mehtar of Chitral. Younghusband believed that the races of Africa and Asia were inferior. He met Curzon, Gandhi and many other people. In 1906 he became the British Resident in Kashmir. Younghusband befriends Bertrand Russell. Russel praises Younghusband. According to Russell the intellectual life at Harvard was very poor. Russell was also expelled from Cambridge. According to the author of this book ‘Russell allowed his crusading ambition to trample on a personal relationship’ (p. 306).

Grombchevesky wrote a letter to Younghusband saying that he was dying and wanted Younghusband to publish his book Kashgar. Younghusband did not. The reasons remain unknown. Younghusband’s views changed at a later stage in his life. Younghusband got honorary doctorate degrees from Edinburgh, Bristol and Cambridge universities.

Dogs and Indian were barred from walking in the Mall at Shimla till 1918. During Lord Minto’s time in India Brown trout eggs were brought to Kahsmir. This book also covers the details of the invasion of Tibet. Curzon wanted the invasion of Tibet and Younghusband acted as Curzon’s henchmen.

I think this book is very interesting for people who want to understand about the professional and personal lives of the colonial officers who lived in India.

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Book Review: British Relations in Sindh (1799-1843): An Anatomy of Imperialism by Robert A. Huttenback (Introduction by Mathhew A. Cook)

 

This book is based on seven chapters. Chapter one covers the French threat, second chapters reflect on the controversy surrounding Cutch (Kutch), third describes the expansion of the British in the region. Chapter four focuses on the Afghan crises from 1834 to 1838. The next chapter gives details about Ellenborough, Napier and the Amirs of Sind. Chapter six is about the annexation of Sind and the repercussions of annexation. Chapter seven is the final chapter which states the conclusion of the book.

The East India company maintained factories in Sindh from 1635 to 1662 and from 1758 to 1775. In the 16th century the Balochs moved to Sindh from the West hills of Sind to become the governing class of the province. In the last years of the eighteenth century the British were well aware of the extension of the French hegemony across Europe. The British became alarmed. As a defense the British wanted to take control of Sindh as it was a logical invasion route (p. 1). Cutch became a British dependency after the treaties of 1816 and 1819. British activity in Sind after the treaty of 1834 was directed toward attainment of three objectives: the conducting of a full survey of the Indus, the encouragement of increased commerce on the river, and the establishment of a residency in Sind. These goals were all achieved within the next four years with the indirect aid of Ranjit Sind (p. 29).

Ranjit Singh could only expand in the direction of Sind, and his efficient army commanded by French officers remained an implicit threat to British influence in the area (p. 31). In 1818 he captured Multan and in 1823. In 1835 Ranjit Singh moved against the Mazari tribe of Rojhan (headed by their chief Behram Khan).

Huttenback states that British contacts with Sind were initially limited to trading establishments and then to treaties which had as their role purpose the protection of India from invasion first by France and later by Russia through the Indus valley. When these fears waned British interest in Sindh faded. By 1830 British interest in Sindh increased. They wanted commerce. As per the author the British did not want trade with Sind, in fact they wanted trade with the interior of Asia where the Russian was already present. Sind was assumed to be a buffer against Russia and a major line of communication.

The treaties of 1832, 1834, and 1838-1839 changed the amirs from the rulers of an independent nation to princes of a client state (p. 110). The attitude of the British officers varied from individual to individual, but it was evident to some degree in virtually every officer who acted on behalf of the company on the subcontinent.

Huttenback’s study provides an insight to the complexities of nineteenth-century British imperialism when the British empire was still expanding.

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Book Review: An Appeal to the Toiling, Oppressed and Exhausted Peoples of Europe By Leon Trotsky

 

Speeches of Leon Trotsky are compiled in this book.  Some the themes which are covered include critique of capitalism, the need for revolution, his opposition to Stalin, and the political developments of his time. Trotsky wants the working class to recover itself and fight for peace. Criticizing the propertied classes, he says that for them the monarchy is the most reliable ally in their struggle against the revolutionary offensive of the proletariat. The Soviet leader gave three percepts. One, trust not the bourgeoisie. Two, control our own leaders and third, have confidence in our own revolutionary strength (p.24).

The author condemns secret diplomacy during negotiations. In a speech delivered in Moscow on April 14 1918, Trotsky says that ‘All those phrases about ‘democarcy’, ‘the fate of small nationalities’, ‘justice’, God’s commands’ – all these are but words, phrases used for the purpose of cheating the common people; in reality the powers are only looking out for unprotected booty in order to pocket it. This I say is the essence of imperialist policy’ (p.60).

Trotsky mentions that the genuine bourgeois thinks that nature itself has destined him to dominate. He warns that if the revolution did not spread to other countries, then it would be crushed by European capitalism (p.70). He further stresses on the intellectual development of women. Criticizing the anarchist communists Trotsky states that there is a need for state apparatus when a country as big as Russia plans to organize its economic system whereas the anarchist believed that the working class did not need state power as it was a bourgeoisie machine (p.82).

Trotsky praises Lenin’s personality and his efforts for the cause. According to him Lenin is the ‘fusion of a courageous, unwavering mind and a steeled and inflexible will’ (p. 100). He also condemns the assassination attempt on his life.  For Marx, he says that he was ‘the greatest of all fighters and thinkers who anticipated and pointed out the paths to a new history (p.97).

The author heavily criticizes the bureaucracy as he considers is an ‘embodiment of monstrous inequality. The revolution destroyed the nobility. The bureaucracy creates a new gentry. The revolution destroyed titles and decorations. The new aristocracy produces marshals and generals. The new aristocracy absorbs an enormous part of the national income. Its position before the people is deceitful and false. Its leaders are forced to hide the reality, to deceive the masses, to cloak themselves, calling black white. The whole policy of the new aristocracy is a frame-up. The new constitution is nothing but a frame-up’ (p125).

Trotsky believes that socialism is only possible when independent activity of the masses and the flourishing of the human personality takes place. Furthermore, he strongly believes in a communist future and wants the future generations to cleanse life of all evil, oppression and violence.

 

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Book Review: Bhopal Connections Vignettes of Royal Rule by Shaharyar Muhammed Khan

 

Khan, the grandson of the last ruling Nawab of Bhopal writes about the dramatic events, characters, scandals, social practices, culture and history of Bhopal. Specific attention has been given to the four successive women rulers of Bhopal. Some of the social customs are shown through the lens of foreigners including Badcock, and Marjorie Memsahib. The first part of the book covers the history of Bhopal and the second part covers the contemporary anecdotes.

The Bhopal state was founded by Dost Muhammad Khan, an Orakzai Pashtun soldier in the Mughal army. As a result of the Anglo-Bhopal treaty Bhopal became a state in 1818. Bhopal was ruled by four begums from 1819 to 1926. Bhopal had a French connection. Before Nadir Shah attacked India in 1739, the French people had moved their estate. At Shergarh, the Bourbons built a housing colony church, school and a small fortress. They mainly married into the Indian Christian community. Still in Bhopal there is presence of the French people.

Bhopal was very loyal to the British. The mutiny of August 1857 had reached the princely state of Bhopal as it was one of the most loyal supporters of the British. The ruler at that time was Sikander Begum. According to the author, once she slapped the British Political Agent Lancelot Wilkinson in public, when he touched her ear-ring. The Rani of Jhansi challenged her (Sikander Begum) because she was a British loyalist. She accepted the challenge threating her by firearms. By December 1857 the Rani of Jhansi was killed in battle. Sikander Begum took control over the state. The British recognized the services of Sikander Begum.

The author of the book states the Sikander Begum went to the famous Jama Masjid in Delhi. This masjid was converted by the British as a stable for their horses. Sikander ordered the closure of the stable and gave a large sum for the renovation of the mosque. In Bhopal the ruling elite sought permission from the British regarding matters of marriage.

In 1911, Sultan Jahan Begum, the fourth Begum of Bhopal embarked on a journey to Europe. She attended the coronation of King George V. She also visited Paris and the embarked in a train towards Istanbul. She was disappointed to see that women were wearing high heels and frocks. The Turk Sultan wanted to confer an award on her, but the British did not approve of this. The Begum was very disappointed.

The second half of the book covers interesting stories about Maimoona, the Prince of Wales’ Tiger Hunt, Badcock, Marjorie Memsahib, The Cricket Match and Maan Saab (the second Begum of Junagadh). The author of the book mentions Badcock as the royal butler who served for twenty-three years. He first served the Begum of Bhopal in 1925. The Begum was there to plead the succession of her surviving son, Hamidullah Khan.

In 1921 the Prince of Wales reached India. He visited Bhopal for hunting tigers. For the hunting guests, it was said that back then the tigers were drugged and hunted. The hunters remained unaware of this. In some cases, circus tigers were also used to please the guests.

The story of Mubarak who leaves for London to sell a necklace is very interesting (p.120). Mubarak meets a lady in London. She accompanies him to India. The stories of Nawab of Junagadh and his wife shows their opulent lifestyle and their treatment of subordinates. Once the Nawab ordered his minions to throw a young Pathan tennis coach to the hungry lions, as he developed a crush on the Nawab’s flirtatious daughter.

Maan Saab, the abandoned wife of the Nawab needed the company of men. She collected a few gigolos from the feudal gentry of Bhopal. When Bano, a maid of Maan Saab urinated in her bathroom, Maan Saab gave her a thorough beating. She was in a hurry so she ordered Allah Rakhi to teach her a lesson. She was so brutally tortured that she passed away. Maan Saab was arrested and served sixteen months in prison.

The author tries to recreate life and times of the rulers of Bhopal. Some of the interesting points in the book include the women rulers, loyalty to the British, French connections, tiger hunts and the meeting between the ruler of Bhopal and the Ottoman Sultan.

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Book Review: The Secret Annexe from the diary of Anne Frank By Anne Frank

 

Anne was born in Frankfurt on 12 June 1929. She died in a camp because of typhoid and exhaustion, just three months short of her sixteenth birthday. Anne Frank’s diary was kept from 12 June 1942 until 1 August 1944. She provides an important eyewitness account of the events during the Second World War. The Secret Annexe begins on 10^th of November 1942, when Anne frank and her family spent more than a year in hiding in Nazi-occupied Amsterdam. This book is an extract from The Definitive Edition of Anne’s diary.

Anne had spent over a year in the annexe, together with her parents and sister, and the Van Daan family.  Albert Dussel was allowed in the annexe with the mutual approval of the two families. Anne states that she gets frightened when she thinks of her close friends who are at the mercy of Nazis. She says that people were shipped off to filthy slaughter houses and quotes the saying ‘Misfortunes never come singly.’

Frank shares her troubles during the hiding period. This includes stories of how food, books and other items smuggled into the temporary residence. She also shares her urge to read books, her troubles with her mother and development of problems with Dussel regarding their shared space.

The social and psychological tensions which she faced during the tough times is given in the book. Anne longs to have a home of her own where she is allowed to move freely and do her homework again. She wants to end living like a fugitive and go back to school.

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Book Review: The Ismailis and Kirgiz of the Upper Amu Darya and Pamirs in Afghanistan: A Micro-history of Delineating International Borders by David Straub

 

This thesis explores the Afghan occupation of the Upper Amu Darya and the Pamirs. The creation of the international borders in 1895 and the effect it had on the Ismaili and Kirghiz communities is investigated. Special emphasis is placed on how the new borders impacted trade and migration. With that, the position of the local political elites is also discussed.

Many of the border agreements are also mentioned in this world. How British, Russia, China and Afghanistan affected people of the mountain societies is described. After Mir Ali Mardan was ousted, a Kirghiz was appointed as the new governor of Wakhan. People from the south started migrating to Wakhan.

The Kirghiz near the Chinese side were once looted by the Qing officilas at Rangkul. As per the author, there was a pashtunization of local administrative positions among the Ismailis. Eleven Hakims were appointed in Wakhan. This composed of various ethnicities. Rehman Qul, a headman among the Kirghiz moved due to Soviet incursion and decided to go to Taghdumbash Pamir in Xinjiang. All the political, social and economic disturbances caused by drawing of borders is thoroughly discussed in this work. Anyone who has interested in politics of mountain communities of Central Asia should read this work.

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Book Review: Letter from Birmingham Jail By Martin Luther King, Jr.

 

This text calls for direct, non-violent resistance in the fight against racism. With that it brings forward the healing power of love. Luther believes that Birmingham is probably the most segregated city in the United States. He says that for years he has been hearing the word ‘Wait!’. This ‘Wait’ according to him, has always meant ‘Never’.

Luther talks about the nations of Asia and Africa gaining independence. Meanwhile in the United States the Negros still creep at horse and buggy pace towards gaining a cup of coffee at a lunch counter. Furthermore, he says that one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. He further stresses that a law is just on its face and unjust in its application. The white moderate has gravely disappointed him. Lukewarm rejection is much more bewildering than outright rejection.

In the concluding paragraphs Luther advocates against utilitarian love and thinks that one should start thinking about humanity, instead of one’s own self.

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Book Review: Jail Diary and Other Writings by Bhagat Singh

 

This is a very important collection of Bhagat Singh’s works. Singh was an Indian Communist revolutionary executed by the British colonizers in 1931. His age at that time was 23. He wrote his diary in the last two years of his life. After his execution his jail diary was handed over to his father. The first chapter in this book is on the problem of Punjab’s language and script. His statements, letters, hunger strike demands, pamphlets and petitions are part of this collection.

Singh says that centuries of warfare and Muslim invasions had dried up the literature of Punjab. He says that Muslims totally lack Indianess that is why they want to propagate Arabic script and Persian language. Singh says that Punjabi people themselves refuse their own captivating language.

In one of his statements Singh is of the view that a radical change is necessary to reorganize society on socialist basis. Regarding the LCC Ordinance Singh says that misrepresentation is and has always been the best instrument in the hands of the government to meet their enemies. Further in the book he strongly advocates against imperialism. He believes it to be exploitative. Singh’s letter to his father is also published as a chapter in this book.

Singh’s message to young political workers is to adopt Marxism as ideology. He wants them to work among people, organize workers and peasants and for the Communist party. He praises Lenin’s political acumen. Moreover, in another chapter he accuses British Labor leaders of betraying their struggle. He says that they have been reduced to mere hypocrite imperialists. Singh says that for him compromise never means surrender. This book a must read for those who want to study South Asian history.

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Book Review: The Untouchables: Who Were They and Why They Became Untouchables by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

 

Ambedkar says that the Hindu civilization produced three social classes. These include the criminal tribes, the aboriginal tribes and the untouchables. The number of these classes is about 85 million. Among these the Untouchables are about 50 million. The author is of the view that Hindu civilization gauged in the light of these social products could hardly be called civilization. Furthermore, he says that the Hindu does not regard the existence of these classes as a matter of apology or shame and feels no responsibility to inquire into its origin and development. The existence of such classes should be more a cause of shame than pride.

The author says that today all the scholarship is confined to Brahmins. They could not rise against the doctrines in which they were brought up. In this book the author advances a thesis on the origin of Untouchability. He himself considers it a novel thesis. It comprises that there is no racial difference between the Hindus and the Untouchables. Untouchability has no racial basis and it also has no occupational basis. The distinction between the Hindus and the Untouchables in its original form, before the advent of untouchability, was the distinction between Tribesmen and Broken Men from alien Tribes. It is the broken men who subsequently came to be treated as Untouchables.

According to the author Untouchability sprung from two things. One was the hatred of the Broken Men as Buddhists by the Brahmins. Second was the continuation of beef-eating by the Broken Men after it had been given up by others. Ambedkar concludes that Untouchability was born some time about 400 A.D. It was born out of the struggle from supremacy between Buddhism and Brahmanism which has completely molded India’s history. The study of which has been sadly neglected by the students of Indian history.

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