Book Review: Karl Marx by David McLellan

I am writing this review after almost six years. I read this book back in summer 2013. Karl Marx was born in Trier in 1818 and he died in 1893.

Marx spent a lot of his time with Young Hegelian intellectuals. He tried his career in journalism. Marx was expelled from Paris for subversive journalism. He met Engels who was the son of a Rhenish cotton spinner. Engels brought Marx a practical acquaintance with the workings of capitalism, provided source of financial assistance and one firm friendship that Marx enjoyed throughout his life. Marx could not complete his work on political economy due to his involvement in the International Workingmen’s Association, commonly known as the first International.

For Marx the proletariat was destined to assume the universal role that Hegel had misleadingly assigned to the bureaucracy. Marx wrote about alienated labor. This labor had four aspects to it. First, the worker was related to his labor as to an alien objet. Second, the worker did not view his work as part of his real life. Third, man’s social essence was taken away from him in his work which did not represent the harmonious efforts of man as a “species being”. Fourth, man found himself alienated from other men.

Marx considers “communism as the positive abolition of private property and thus of human self-alienation and therefore the real re-appropriation of the human essence by and for man. This is communism as the complete and conscious return of man himself as a social, i.e., human being.”

Discussing history, the author quotes from the Communist Manifesto: “The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of a class struggles.” Marx wrote that “society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great classes directly facing each other: bourgeoisie and proletariat”: and the same view reappears in capital. Marx espouses a materialist conception of history.

Explaining economics, the author states that Marx gave the labor theory of value, according to which the value of objects was measured by the amount of Labor embodied in them. Marx paints a grim picture of the fate of the working class. He says that “within the capitalist system all methods for raising the social productiveness of labor are brought about at the cost of the individual laborer”. It was Engels, in 1844 who guided Marx’s interest to economics and introduced him at first hand to British Capitalism. Engels survived Marx by thirteen years. He was the keeper of Marx’s archives and began editing his manuscripts of the remaining volumes of Capital.

Under the theme of politics Marx main target was the state. He considered state as the central institution of capitalist society. Marx viewed state as an instrument of class domination. The large-scale industry and universal competition of modern capitalism had created their own political organization- the modern liberal democratic state under which the bourgeoisie could best develop its class potential. Moreover, he believes that after a successful proletarian revolution there would be a period of transition which he occasionally referred to as “the dictatorship of the proletariat”. He associated the word dictatorship with the Roman office of dictatura, where all power was legally concentrated in the hands of a single man during a limited period in a time of crisis.

Marx appeared to be a philosopher, a humanist with not only a devastating account of the alienation of man in capitalist society but also in rich and varied account of the potential latent in every individual waiting to be realized under communism. Later in many developing nations Marxism combined with nationalism functions as an ideology for mass participation in the modernization process. The author substitutes the people of Asia, Africa, and Latin America as “external proletariat” in the place of the industrial working class in which Marx placed such hope.

The ideas of Marx have been an inspiration and has had a significant impact on a large section of humanity over the last century.

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Book Review: Teachings of Rumi by Andrew Harvey

Jalal-ud-din Rumi, one of the greatest mystics of Islam was probably born in Balkh Afghanistan in September 1207. He died in Konya in Southern Turkey in December 1273. Mevlevi order was founded by him and continued by his son Sultan Valad. He spread his vision all over Asia and Africa.

 Rumi combined the intellect of a Plato, the vision and enlightened soul-force of a Buddha or a Christ, and the extravagant literary gifts of a Shakespeare. This particular book is divided into four movements. The first one is call, second is named Be a Lover, third one is Ordeal and the last one is Union. Quotations have been taken from the whole range of Rumi’s work. Letters, table talk, stories, sections from Mathnawi, poetry and prose have also been included. At one place in the book Rumi says: “God is He who consumes man and makes him nothing, since no reason can understand Him”.

On page 23 author quotes from Mathnawi:

“You went on pilgrimage to Mecca, but where are you now?”

Page 27:

“Yet how could I know His presence near me without traveling across the world?”

Page 46:

Take care! Don’t commit crimes and sins saying to yourself, “I will repent tomorrow and take refuge in God.”

Page 53:

“Rise up, use this time richly, you poor man!

If you don’t, you’ll burn with regret

When your soul’s separated from your body.”

Page 71:

“Every low-souled person who confines himself to contemplating the garden remains deprived of the vision of the Gardener.”

Page 91:

“Palace before the sun burning candle,

See how its shinning disappears before those lights”.

Page 107:

“If you don’t have the cane of prudence and judgement,

Take the eyes of the one who sees as guide”.

Page 116:

“From every direction, agonies have crowded you

To drag you at last towards the Direction less”.

Page 124:

“You’ll only enjoy the city and your relations

After enduring all the griefs and ordeals of exile.”

Page 147:

“To speak of God is to speak of the soul

And to speak of the soul is the Speak of God.”

Page 157:

Rumi quotes Imam Dja’far Cadiq. When Imam purified his soul and paid no attention to Caliphs and Kings, was asked about this pride, he replied, “I myself am not proud. I have abandoned my own existence, the greatness of God has annihilated me and installed itself in place of my pride; the pride I am speaking of springs directly out of the heart of the greatness of God; as for me, in the middle of this glory, I do not exist.”

Jellaludin Rumi (1207-1273) led the quiet life of an Islamic teacher in Central Anatolia (modern Turkey) until the age of thirty-seven, when he met a wandering dervish named Shams Tabriz through whom be encountered divine presence.

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Book Review: The Principality and Power of Europe by Adrian Hilton

Adrian Hilton’s book was published in 1997. The author was a parliamentary candidate who also produced many theater programs. He was also a lecturer in psychology.

Hilton argues that United Kingdom has the right to remain independent politically, economically and religiously. He throws lights on the spiritual and political aspects working throughout Europe. Covering many details of the relationships the author stresses on the importance of sovereignty, role of Vatican and the papacy, the threats to United Kingdom, nature of biblical government and supremacy of European Courts over British acts in Parliament. Moreover, effects of monetary Union, European propaganda Machine and the political implications for Christians of Europe have been covered. The author believes that Europe is again been plunged into darkness with a new strategy of domination.

Under chapter one Hilton stresses that papacy was bought, sold and occasionally obtained by murder. He opines that the great medieval struggle between Empire and Papacy was initiated in 1059. By 1409 there were three Popes. Throughout history the Papacy has always tried to impose itself over Europe and European Union is again considered to be overpowered by the Papacy in a new form.

The second chapter is regarding Dis-United Kingdom. The current debate about devolution for Scotland, and assembly for Wales and a loosening of ties with the Northern Ireland, has encouraged the constituent countries of the UK to look directly to Brussels as the centre of power and influence, rather than to the British parliament at Westminster.

Roman Catholicism has a strong tendency towards centralism. It considers it wholly necessary for individual nations and churches to merge their individual nations and churches to merge their individual identities into a larger body, beneath the guise of avoiding future wars and uniting Christian witness. On the other hand, the protestant Constitution of the United Kingdom has served as a strong defense against Rome’s desires for the ‘evangelization’ of Britain. The Danes, the Dutch, the Belgians and the Spanish do not have Constitutions which prevent the ascendancy of a Roman Catholic monarch, leading to submission to Rome.

Discussing sovereignty in chapter three Hilton regards Britain as no longer an independent sovereign state, by virtue of her membership of the EU. He believes that only by remaining free as a nation can Britain adapt to change according to her choices and priorities. The European law takes precedence over British Acts of parliament. Parliament has, therefore, surrendered its sovereignty. Jean Monnet- one of the founding fathers of EU believed in the Catholic vision that Europe should become a federal super-state.

The author espouses in chapter four that protestant countries like Britain and Denmark to be more democratic and open with less tolerance for centralized control. This view is expressed in the fourth chapter. For the 375 million citizens of the EU, all the decisions are taken by just 50 people: 15 heads of state and government, 15 ministers in Councils of Ministers, and 20 European Commissioners. Furthermore, Hilton thinks that British politicians will soon no longer be the representatives of the British people, but mere delegates of Brussels. The forces driving the European collective simply amend rules to suit their purposes, and are quite prepared to act illegally if necessary.

Addressing the question of citizenship in chapter five, the author of this book throws light on Citizenship in Britain. As more of parliament’s sovereignty is transferred to Brussels, the concept of belonging to the British state is increasingly eroded. The author stresses that the far great constitutional statutes for the British citizens the Magna Carta of Edward I (1215), the Petition of Right (1627), THE Bill of Rights (1689) and the Act of Settlement (1701)- have never been expressly repealed, through successive European treaties imply that they have been repealed.

The issue of monetary Union is discussed under chapter six. Hilton considers money and power as bedfellows in all walks of life. He views inflation as a moral issue, a fraud policy implemented by a government which hits the poorer members of society disproportionately. On 15 December 1995. The EU leaders agreed that the intended single currency would be called the ‘Euro’. Joining the Monetary Union would elevate the power of Central bankers above that of the elected legislature. The author believes joining the monetary union has little to do with economic or political benefit.

Chapter seven briefly explains the red real costs for the membership of the EU. Hilton states that since joining the EEC in 1973, Britain has amassed an enormous trade deficit with Europe of almost 70 billion pounds. He further espouses that Britain dos not have to sacrifice its freedoms in order to enjoy prosperity. When Britain joined the EEC it was the third richest member and today it is the fourth poorest country in EU.

The question of war or peace is raised in the eighth chapter of the book. Hilton considers that Britain is being conquered by a European oppressor. He presents eleven points for his argument. Firstly, the nation’s flag is lowered and the conqueror’s flag is raised. Second, the national anthem is replaced by the EU anthem. The blue passport abolished and replaced by a red European passport is the third point. Fourth, there is no head of state in Britain with sovereign power, given that the Queen’s power is undermined by imposed European citizenship. The fifth point states that the media is controlled. Sixth, the constitution and the culture are set aside. Seven, the education system is controlled. Eight, the national religion is changed. Britain’s national religion is already in a state of terminal decline as there is ascendancy of Roman Catholics to powerful media and advisory positions.

Nine, ownership rights are diminished. Other European Nationals can register can register their boats in the UK to obtain a share of the UK fish quota. Ten, a form of slavery is imposed. Those who control the interest rates become the masters of the poor especially if there cannot be removal from power by popular vote. The eleventh and final point is that the nation is disarmed. France and Germany want army, navy and air force under European government control.

As a result, all these points assert that Britain is being diplomatically manipulated and defeated through a peaceful war. The author believes that the aim is to bring about the peaceful war. The author believes that the aim is to bring about the peaceful union of Europe under a dominant Germany, to achieve without bloodshed what the Kaiser and Hitler failed to win on the battlefield. The danger is that this aim totally ignores the democratic process. Moreover, Hilton considers both France and Germany as recent converts to democracy and political stability.

Chapter nine is titled ‘The Propaganda Offensive’. In this chapter Euro-propaganda budget is vast. No budget should be used to finance propaganda. The Roman Catholic-dominated press and other media are waging a propaganda war, but the consequent ascendancy of Roman Catholicism in public esteem and respectability causes concern.

Rome operates in a similar manner to the Chameleon. In nations where she is dominant, she is an oppressor; in nations where she is weak, the strategy is to win friends in high places and undermine whatever challenges her supremacy. The protestant/pro-covenant truth is the foundation of the British constitution and social fabric. Now the ascending religious spirit in the United Kingdom is Roman Catholicism as it is the dominant state religion of Europe.

‘The Only Way Forward’ is the last chapter of the book. In this chapter four possible routes are given. The Norwegian, the Swiss, the American and the untried. The author quotes Winston Churchill: ‘We are with Europe, but not of it. We are linked, but not combined. We are interested and associated but bot absorbed.’ In the last chapter the author states that France wants Britain to share Europe’s defense burden and counter-balance Germany, Italy wants an ally to balance the Franco-German axis, and the northern EU states value Britain’s financial input and its influence in pressing for liberal economics.

Monetary and Political Union for Britain would bind Britain to Europe in perpetuity. Such a move is considered by the author ‘an offence to Britain’s culture, a rape of Britain’s culture heritage, a corruption of Britain’s laws and a perilous surrender of Britain’s constitution and democracy’.

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Book Review: Fire on the Mountain by Anita Desai

Nanda Kaul an old lady wants to be left alone for the last years of her life. She lives in a quite house at Carignano in Kasauli.

This relatively short book is divided into three parts. The first part discusses Nanda Kaul’s life at Carignano. The arrival of her great granddaughter Raka is covered in the second part. The third and last part of the book is about Ila Das’s departure from Carignano. Nanda Kaul’s daughter is Asha. Asha is mother of Tara and Tara is Raka’s mother.

When Raka comes to live with Nanda Kaul she is not received with an open heart. Instead Raka is initially very reserved and seldom does she talk. Raka would disappear all day in the forest and come back in the evening. She loves walking and hiking in the evening. She seems to enjoy her life as she has no responsibility and is free from worry.

In the last chapters of the book the author writes about the changes in Ila Das and Nanda Kaul’s lives. When Ila Das heads home she is murdered by Preet Singh. Nanda Kaul receives a phone call. This is when the news of her friend’s death is announced to her.

This novel has characters which are really close to reality. The description of the setting and characters is really amazing. Yet the language used by Desai is simple and enjoyable for the reader.

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Book Review: Ethnicity and Politics in Pakistan by Feroz Ahmed

The author believes that theory is generalization and systematic and meaningful ordering of empirically verified facts. Ahmed suggests that concepts by themselves are not the motive forces of history. It is the material realities behind these concepts which call for change.

Before the formation of Pakistan there was a center which delegated powers to the provinces for the sake of administrative convenience. Pakistan retained its unitary character, after formation. Before the partition of Indian sub-continent the emerging capitalist class of India was almost totally non-Muslim, and the commercial life of the regions which later became Pakistan was dominated by Hindu and other non-Muslim, and the commercial life of the regions which later became Pakistan was dominated by Hindu and other non-Muslim businessmen. While landlords and peasants in West Pakistan were Muslims, rural life in East Pakistan was stratified along religious lines, with almost all landlords being Hindus and almost all rural beings Muslim.

Migration of Hindus landlords created a power vacuum in East Bengal. The land left behind was redistributed among peasants. In the urban areas the elite in Bengal consisted of the decaying Muslim aristocracy, represented by the regional Muslim League. The urban bourgeois was absent. Instead the small traders, shopkeepers, professional people, teachers, and clerks, became potentially the most important class. West Pakistan also did not have a bourgeois class. Absentee landlords became the most powerful class. The landlords were not politically well organized in this part of Pakistan. The bureaucracy formed strong relations with the landlord class. It rise as a social force and filled the vacuum created by the British departure. The bureaucracy was drawn mostly from Punjab and Urdu speakers of Sind.

West Pakistan received traders belonging to the Memon, Bohra and Khoja communities. These immigrants had come from Gujarat and Bombay.  In East Pakistan due to the absence of capitalists, feudal landlords, bureaucracy, and the military the power structure of West Pakistan became the national power structure.  At independence the GDP of East Pakistan was more than that of West Pakistan. Education was also more extensive. The economic infrastructure of West Pakistan was certainly an advantage. The industrialization of West Pakistan created disparities in the socio-economic development of both the regions. West Pakistan based capital penetrated into East Pakistan. Distrusting the Bengalis the West Pakistani capitalists brought their own managers from West Pakistan.

Pakistan received economic aid from USA in early 1950s. Later it also signed SEATO. The US expanded its share in Pakistan’s imports from six percent in 1952 to forty percent in 1960s. As a result of the capitalist model followed by Pakistan, twenty families came to control 80 percent of the banking, 70 percent of the insurance and 66 percent of the industrial assets of Pakistan. When the decade of development ended in 1968, the GDP of West Pakistan exceeded that of West by 34 percent.

In 1958 there was a coup in Pakistan. Later Ayub Khan revealed that he had consulted officials in Washington, including CIA Chief Allen Dulles, before declaring martial law in Pakistan. During Ayub’s rule Tagore’s songs were banned on Radio Pakistan. As Tagore was a Hindu and considered as a bad influence. Anti-Bengali and anti-Hindu bigotry was rampant in West Pakistan. The remarks made by Major Kamal were highly disturbing. He said once that once the West Pakistanis had conquered East Bengal each of his soldiers would have a Bengali mistress. He compared the Bengalis with dogs.

A devastating cyclone and tidal wave hit coastal areas of East Pakistan. The military government was inefficient in providing relief to the affected people of East Pakistan. Yahya Khan refused to convene the Assembly in Zulfiqar Ai Bhutto’s support. Further in the book the author narrates about the language riots in 1972. He stresses on the basics of language and the makeup of language communities in Pakistan. The author believes that Pakistan is a multinational state with four major nations. Earlier on in the book the author mentions that China, Switzerland and Afghanistan as countries which have various nationalities within its borders.

In West Pakistan very small ethnic groups who could not assist themselves culturally on a nation-wide basis and who had to conform to the prevailing ethos of the ruling oligarchy. Thus, among the non-Urdu speaking communities, Urdu essentially became the language the language of the elite, of the privileged. The author believes that as the feudal system vanishes and is replaced by capitalism or socialism, enlargement of the resource base, consolidation of the productive forces and integration and expansion of the market, will be inevitable. The language which serves as the medium of this commercial intercourse will naturally grow, flourish and become increasingly acceptable to people who speak other mother tongues.

Moreover Ahmed writes about the Arab conquest of Sind. The rule of Soomro and Samo after came after the lapse of the Arab rule. This Rule of Soomro and Samo lasted for about 500 years. Later Arghuns and Tarkhans arrived from Central Asia. In 1592 the Mughal Ruler Akbar omposed direct rule over Sind. There were at least 40 clans who were in rebellion against the Mughals. The Sameja Unar, Chandio and Nomri were particulary were noted for their resistance to alien rule. Kalhoro, a native ruler of Sind emerged after the crumbling of Mughal rule. Before the British conquered Sind in 1843, the latter had established itself as a fully sovereign state, ruled by the Talpur Mirs. Commander Hosho, who became a hero, raised the slogan of Murresoon Sindh na desoon( we will die but not give up Sindh).

The author views the resistance in Sindh as something significant. He believes that it was the most sophisticated tactics of indigenous guerilla war. The British had imposed martial law in Sind in 1942 and did not lift it until a few months before the independence of 1947. Concentration camps and barbed wrires were common sights in Sind. Derailment of trains, breaching embankments and ambushing police parties were common too. Police was brought in to assist in the counter insurgency operations. Ahmed stresses that the idea behind the Hur movement was independence of Sind. In Sind the Talpurs who are Baloch, came from outside. The major portion of immigrants in Sind were from UP, Dehli, Hyderabad and Bihar. The remaining are from Kathiawar.

One million Hindu Sindis left for India. On the other hand more than one million Urdu-speaking persons came from India and settled in Sind.The land brought under cultivation by the construction of Kotri and Guddu barrages was also awarded to non- Sindi military and civil officers or ‘purchased’ by prosperous Punjabi farmers in give-away auctions. The author narrates an incident from Dadu district. A factory was located in Sind. This was a rural area with no non-Sindi population. But when the factory was located there, all the managerial staff and most workers were recruited from Punjab and N.W.F.P. Even the Imam of the mosque was brought from Punjab.

In addition to that Ahmed also mentions about the Mujahir identity in Pakistan. In March 1984 a new force in the form of Mujahir Qaumi Movement emerged on Pakistan’s political stage. This movement took the urban centers of Sind by storm.  In Karachi, of all the immigrants (including 19.3 percent from Bombay and Gujarat), the largest proportion came from the UP and the ‘North-West Zone’ (Dehli, Ajmer, Rajputana and Punjab). When General Yahya Khan refused to honor the results of 1970 elections, the Mujahirs overwhelmingly joined the Punjabis in supporting the action and went into a frenzy of ethnic bigotry against the Bengalis. The author opines that General Zia found broad support among the Mohajirs for his decision to hang Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.

Zia’s active involvement in the Afghan insurgency facilitated a dramtic rise in Pashtoon power in Karcahi. Drugs, guns and black market for various goods expanded due to the Afghan war.In 1985 Bushra Zaidi, a Mohajir College girl was run over by a driver identified as a Pashtoon in Nazimabad, Karachi. This incident created more conflict. Mohajirs were disenchanted with Zia regime. Islami Jamiat-i-Tulaba IJT leadership in Karachi had passed into the hands of Punjabi students. Muhajirs felt they were being used to serve Punjabi interests.

The author strongly believes that no struggle will have legitimacy if the common masses do not see it as their own struggle.

Note: Read in July 2013, the review for this book was written earlier today. This review is extracted from the notes (written in 2013) of the reviewer.

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Libraries in ICT

Last month I visited libraries near my house and in total I found only three. One of them is in G-11 Markaz. This library is a dingy room with insufficient light. One corner of the roof gives a view of the sky as corrugated roofing sheet is not in place. An employee at the library informed me that the roof was affected by a storm a few years ago. This building needs serious renovation.

Travelling to another library in G-8/1 I saw a library located on the dead end of a street corner. This structure is a shanty metal container. In fact, it looks more like a makeshift shelter. Lastly I visited a library in F-9. This library seemed reasonable. I applied for membership when the staff informed me that it would take a maximum of two days. I got my membership card after three weeks.

I wonder who is responsible for all these ills. Is it inefficiency, lethargic attitude or red tape? When would this stop?

Note: This article was written in October 2018.

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Book Review: The Asian Paradise Hunza by Rahmatullah Beg

Rahmatullah Beg got his education from Hunza and Gilgit and Srinagar. Later he moved to Karachi after the partition of United India. He held various portfolios during his lifetime. Most of these portfolios were honorary positions within his community. This particular book of the author covers numerous themes. Most of the chapters in the book are written by the author.

Some of the others include speech, radio address, and articles from Dawn newspaper, personal letters and proposals. Beg has named the book Asian Paradise only because an American Film company had visited Hunza in the past and shot a film titled Hunza as Asian Paradise. In the introduction Beg mentions the presence of a Tarkhan house in Sost, Hunza. He further writes about Liaquat Ali Khan. While addressing people in Gilgit Liaquat Ali Khan expressed his hope the people of Gilgit would liberate Kashmir. I was unaware of Liaquat Ali Khan’s visit to Gilgit. The author mentions his visit. Beg further talks about the development and challenges of Tourism in the Northern Areas. Writing about Marcopolo he states that he had travelled from Gilgit to Hunza. At that time Hunza was under Buddhist rule.

In the 15^th century 200 individuals arrived in Hunza with the bridegroom from Shigar. Among them some families settled in Altit as they are known as Musinkuz. Moving on he says that Mir Nazim Khan of Hunza built a special guest house for VIPs in 1925. After Nazim Khan’s death his son Ghazan Khan shifted residence from Shumolbog to the old castle in 1938. He remained there till his death in 1945.

The author narrates an event from the Saint Gazette of London 1898. He writes that Queen Victoria made Aga Khan sit on Pope’s throne. Beg elaborates on Lord Curzon and Lord Kitchner’s visit to Hunza.  In addition to that he briefly writes about Queen Victoria’s monument in Hunza.

Aga Samad Shah’s visit to Hunza in Oct 1921 is briefly mentioned. He spoke Persian. Wazir Inayatullah and Subedar Muhammd Rafi served as interpreters. Aga Samad went to China via Hunza in Oct 1921 and returned in March 1922. He had gone to China for the enquiry of the murder case of Counselor at Chini Bagh, where the British Counselor was staying. Pir Subjally Ramzanally, Aga Khan Radio address of the 1940 to the Jamat of Northern Areas, Nanga Parbat expedition of 1953, Aga Khan IV visit to Hunza in Oct 1960 and education development in Hunza are covered in the subsequent chapters.

Construction of Karakoram Highway, Pak-Sino Boundary agreement, Haseegawaa Public School, Health in Northern Areas, and KADO and AKRSP’s efforts are also mentioned. Woes of Hunza are interesting chapters to read. PIA is severely criticized by the author. Referring to PIA he says: “I have been flying for the last many years between Rawalpindi and Gilgit but there is no improvement. People suffer as they are made to waste their precious time and money at Rawalpindi. PIA has failed to serve people on this route.”

The last pages of the book consist of colored and non-colored photographs. The rulers of Hunza from Ghazan Khan I to Jamal Khan are included. Others photographs include that of the author with different dignitaries in Hunza and elsewhere.

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Book Review: The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State by Frederick Engels

Frederick Engels wrote this book between March and May 1884. Originally written in German, appearing in book form first in 1884, the English translation of this got published in 1891. Based on nine interesting chapters, the author has starts from ancient stages of prehistoric culture and ends with the critique of civilization.

Engels believes Morgan was the first person who attempted to introduce a definite order into the prehistory of human kind. This order includes savagery, barbarism and civilization. Engels mentions Morgan dividing savagery and barbarism into lower, middle and upper stages according to the progress made in food production.  During the lower stages of savagery human race depended on fruits, nuts and roots. Crabs, mussels and aquatic animals came in the next stage.  This became possible with the use of fire. The upper stage of savagery began with the invention of bow and arrow. In this stage game became a regular source of food. Bow and arrow was for savagery what the iron sword was for barbarism and fire-arms for civilization- the decisive weapon.

Moreover in chapter two Engels again refers to Morgan. He explains Morgan reference to unrestricted sexual relations. This unrestricted sexual relation prevailed within every tribe, every woman belonging equally to every man and very man to very woman. According to Morgan the primitive state of unregulated sexual intercourse developed very early. Engels discusses consanguine family, Punaluan family and the pairing family. The increase in prohibitions made group marriages more and more impossible and they were displaced by the pairing family. The author writes about the overthrow of mother right with the decision that in the future offspring of male members should remain within that genes.

In addition to that Engels believes: “Modern individual family is founded on the open or concealed domestic slavery of women, and modern society is a mass composed of these individual families as its molecules.” During the three principal stages of human development the forms of marriages developed. In the first stage of savagery group marriage developed. In the second stage of Barbarism pairing marriage came into place. In the last stage of civilization monogamy supplemented by adultery and prostitution developed. The writer views monogamy to have arisen from the concentration of large wealth in the hands of single individual-man.

With private property gaining ascendency over communal property and with the father right getting more prominent the dependency of marriages on economic considerations became even greater. Furthermore Engels suggests that supremacy of man in marriage is only due to his economic supremacy. The abolition would disappear once the economic supremacy ends.

In chapter three Engels addresses the Iroquois Gens of Americas. He writes about their prevalent hierarchy. Each tribe has a particular dialect, tribal council for common affair is present and war chiefs are elected. The Iroquois Confederacy had no powerful head and no chief with executive power. Outside the tribe was considered outside the law.

Chapter number four focuses on the Greek Gens. Engels quotes Grote’s A History of Greece. The Greeks had a common burial place. Right of adoption into the gens, right to elect chiefs and to depose them were present. The fifth chapter is about the rise of the Athenian state. The Athenian people fused into a single people. A common Athenian Civil law arose above the legal customs of tribes and gentes. The entire people were divided into three classes. This included tillers of land, artisans and nobility. Nobility only had the right hold office. In Athens there was no supreme official with executive power.

The author covers The Gens and the State in Rome in chapter six. The first constitution of the Roman people mentioned that public affairs were managed by the Senate. The Senate composed of the Chiefs of the 300 gentes. The Romans in the age of the so-called kings lived in a military democracy founded on gentes, phratries and tribes and developed out of them.

Chapter seven focuses on The Gens among the Celts and Germans. Among the Germans respect for female sex was very firmly in place. The thought of the wives and daughters taken captive or into slavery was terrible to them. Chastity for girls was maintained unlike the Celts. Among the Germans private associates had already become permanent. A military leader who had made himself a name gathered around him a band of young men eager for booty who he pledged to personal loyalty, giving the same pledge to them. Under the chapter formation of the state among the Germans the author emphasizes that “all that was vigorous and life-giving which the Germans infused into the Roman world was barbarian.”

In the last chapter Engels considers separation of pastoral tribes from the mass of the rest of barbarians as the first great social division of labor. Cattle-the chief article acquired a money function and already at this stage did the work of money. For the first great social division of labor arose the first great cleavage of society into two classes: masters and slaves, exploiters and exploited.

Engels believes that emancipation of woman becomes possible only when woman take part in production on a larger scale. Engels considers merchants as the class which without any participation in production subjugates the producers. This is a class of middleman which exploits any two producers.

Engels writes about how private land property, money, trade expansion and usury played a role in economies. Furthermore the arising of the state is described. Athens is considered as the purist example. Here the state sprang directly and mainly out of the class antagonisms which develop within gentile society itself. Hegel’s definition of state is also provided. Hegel believed that state would moderate conflict between classes with conflicting economic interests. State distinguishes itself from the old gentile organization on territorial basis, public power, taxes, and national debts.

Furthermore civilization is elaborated by Engels. “It is the stage of development in society at which the division of labor, the resulting exchange between individuals, and commodity production which combines them both, come to their full growth and revolutionizes the whole of previous society. Slavery is the first form of exploitation, the form peculiar to the ancient world, it is succeeded by serfdom in the Middle Ages, and wage labor in modern times.

Engels criticizes civilization: “From the first day to this, sheer greed has been the driving spirit of civilization; wealth and gain wealth and once more wealth, wealth, not of society but of this single-party individual- here was its one and final aim.” The more civilization advances it would introduce a conventional hypocrisy unknown to earlier forms of society.

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Book Review: In the Shadow of History by Mubarak Ali

In the shadow of history is a book which consists of articles written by Mubarak Ali. The writer believes that political history is mostly used by dictators and tyrants whereas social history focuses cultural and social values which bring people together. He views history taught at our educational institutions as political history, which serves the ruling classes. Moreover he also talks about attempts by historians to mold history in their own ways. Under the article Colonization and Language Dr. Mubarak Ali explains that military defeat is followed by attacks on social and cultural institutions and traditions in an attempt to make them worthless.

Ali further talks about the role of conspiracies in history. Quoting examples of Greek, Egypt and the Mughals he condemns romanticizing history. He firmly believes that history is not a romantic tale rather it is full of sorrow and misery. Blaming the Sufis he holds them responsible for making people passive and turning them into submissive beings. In addition to that he writes about the falsification of history giving examples of Hamaudur Rehman Commission and Jinnah’s speeches. In addition to that the author adds that Vasco de Gama and Columbus were guided by Muslim seafarers.

Emphasizing on the need to learn from history the author advocates that any nation should accept its mistakes. Ali writes about the need for young researchers to play an active role in historical writing. He quotes Engels who says: “He who writes history textbooks, writes history”. He addresses the problems in Pakistan regarding the writing of history and problems of research in Pakistan. With that he considers the future of research in Pakistan very bleak.

During Ayub Khan’s military dictatorship the subject of history was replaced by social studies. As a consequence history lost its independence. Further in the book the author criticizes Z.A Bhutto for lack of far-sightedness and lust for power. Due to this he lost the chance to strengthen democratic traditions in the country. 23 March was regarded significant after the independence of Bangladesh as it had challenged the very basis of two nation theory. Thereupon its celebration and importance started gaining strength.  

The landed aristocracy of India was the backbone of the modern school system introduced by the British. In a residential school there was no common mess and each boy had his own cook and kitchen. VIP Culture is traced back in history. During the decline of the Mughal Empire an anecdote regarding Mirza Ghalib is shared. Mirza Ghalib refused to serve in a college only because the principal did not come to receive him.

The author considers the prevalent system of democracy in Pakistan as feudal. Dr. Mubarak Ali criticizes fascism, hero-worship and dictatorship. He believes that societies which only rely on heroes for their survival do not prosper. This approach creates confusion in human minds. Instead of remedying their problems they wait for messiahs.

In the second half of the book, most of the articles are written on Sindh. This includes the Arab conquest of Sindh, feudalism, Sindh under foreign rule, Hindu Muslim conflict, and separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency and nationalism in Sindh. Some of the other articles are about Mazilgah Mosque, communal violence, Sindhi nationalism, Ethnic division in Sindh, peasant rebellions in Sindh and banditry.

This book give one a flash back of major events in history and also highlights the distortions of history which have aggravated problems  and hindered a progressive approach.

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Book Review: We Indians by Khushwant Singh

I remember the time when I first saw one of Khushwant Singh’s books in my childhood. It was a blue book of jokes which I reckon was on one of the bookshelves in my house, although I do not remember reading the book.

Today I finished reading We Indians.  I found really interesting as it is about Khushwant Singh’s personal observation about the society he lives in. Published in 1982 the author analyzes the good and bad character of Indians. In the very first chapter he tries to explain who really Indians are. He adds: “The only group in or midst who had some reservations about being Indian were the Muslims”. He explains his reasons for thinking so.

The second chapter highlights the effects of religion on Indians. He considers them possessing desire for self-praise, sycophancy (worship of the successful), character assassination of others, love for wealth, being envious and claiming to be know-all. Singh opines that a new concept of work-based religion should be evolved otherwise religion is going to deteriorate people’s growth. In addition he is in favor of giving a modern reorientation to religion.

Moreover the author has included a chapter titled ‘The Women of India’. In this chapter he writes about the history of the social life of Indian women. Beginning from matriarchy in India he describes how things change at a later stage. Singh narrates how Suttee got introduced and was later outlawed during the British Raj in 1829 by Viceroy Lord William Bentinck. In the same chapter he praises Nehru’s role in the advancement of women in India.

While addressing the problem of corruption Singh suggests that laws are not enough to counter corruption. Instead social values have to change and society has a major part to play in this change. Further in the book he quotes Voltaire: “Corruption grows respectable with age”. Moving on the author writes a separate chapter on prohibition. He traces the history of prohibition in India and concludes by making an argument against prohibition in India.

In the concluding chapters of the book Singh writes about the debate regarding English in India. He says that he feels more comfortable in using English. Another chapter reflects on the British advantages and disadvantages for the people of India. He presents the viewpoints of the Indians and that of the British.

The last chapter discusses the international relations between India and the U.S. The author comments on political issues such as state relations, such as that of Indo- Pak, Indo-China, Soviet Union and the U.S. He stresses on the need to bridge the gap between India and U.S as India needs more help from U.S than vice versa.

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